By Martha Crump

Whether you have a few head of cattle or quite a few, you’ve no doubt had to give them injections at some point. If you are managing your herd correctly, that means you’ve established a good working relationship with your local veterinarian, as that is now the protocol for obtaining any medications or vaccines for your herd.

But has anybody ever talked to you about the “What, When, Where, Why and How” of injections? I suspect many of us have watched family, and when we graduated into the designated role of “Shot Boss,” we were given some quick directions, and after that we were on our own. After all, just how difficult could it really be?

Surprisingly, there are quite a few “whys” to consider when we are responsible for the injection side of vaccinating or doctoring our sick cattle. It is no surprise that over the last 20 or so years, as with many practices in the beef industry, progress has been made in standardizing beef cattle injection techniques and methods. These injection techniques are recommended to help with animal safety and the production of safe, quality beef for the consumer.

I’m only mentioning the “What” of this equation briefly, as most all know that the purpose of vaccines is to protect against disease, prevent pregnancy loss and promote passive immunity. Each of these points could rightfully be an article on its own. If you are running a program like your livestock deserve, then the “When” and “Why” is a customized protocol for your herd and will vary across ranches and regions. Producers should work closely with their veterinarian to customize this plan.

This now leaves us with the “Where” and the “How” of giving injections.

The first safety measure is to make sure your cattle are safely restrained and that you have easy access to the neck. A moving animal creates the potential for a missed shot, a misplaced shot or, worse yet, an injury to the “shot boss.” Animals that are not properly restrained are more likely to suffer from tissue trauma, incorrect injection technique and location, and are at a higher risk for needle breaks.

An old saying around cattle pens is, “Slow is faster, because it’s smoother.” Everyone should know what they’re doing, where they are standing to do their specific job and have a clear setup to get it done.

Understanding the route of administration (ROA) for the vaccines or medicine being given is critical for the efficacy of the product being used. Most vaccines are either given subcutaneously (SQ), just under the skin, or intramuscularly (IM) in the neck. Some vaccines are now given intranasally with a specialized blunt plastic attachment.

Starting with the Sub Q injection, it is given at a 45-degree angle, while injections that are given intramuscularly (IM) are positioned at a 90-degree angle and inserted more deeply. When label recommendations are followed, an animal’s ability to absorb, distribute, break down and excrete a drug are predictable. The problem arises when directions are not followed. There are distinct differences in the rate of absorption of drugs depending on how they are delivered, and when given incorrectly, there is no guarantee of drug effectiveness.

Most injections are given SQ, or just under the skin, as they are generally less irritating and therefore the preferred ROA. It is advisable to avoid the temptation to use the hand not holding the needle to pull the skin up or “tent” it as you are injecting. This practice quite often leads to injecting yourself instead of the cow. We won’t talk about how I know this fact!

It is a common tendency for a person who has never given shots, as it makes it easy to feel the syringe path. Instead of this technique, keep the 45-degree angle and try for slight back-and-forth movement of the syringe tip once inserted. If it is mobile, then you are under the skin, but not into the muscle.

For the intranasal vaccines, we have tried a couple of different tips by different manufacturers, and the one we prefer has a large circular guard that prevents the tip from being inserted too deeply into the nasal passage. One brand had a smaller guard, and it was difficult to control depth as the circular guard passed right into the nostril. With a moving target, this had the potential to cause trauma, so we made sure to avoid that brand with future treatments. No matter how well you have them secured, there will be head movement.

We also try to have the head elevated for a few moments after spraying the mist into the nose so it will not immediately run right back out. Our grandson was administering the nasal vaccine for the first time a few weeks ago, and this was the correction he needed. Keep that head up for just a minute to eliminate it dripping right back out. That turns into an expensive puddle! It’s easy to miss the little points when you are learning new things.

This diagram shows exactly where the recommended injection safe zones are located. Injections outside of the indicated safe zone have the potential to cause injury and even death to the animal. The nuchal ligament runs along the top of the neck and is responsible for supporting the head. Injections placed too high have the potential to cause damage that can cause the animal to suffer severe and even permanent paralysis. The same results can occur if the spinal cord is inadvertently hit with the syringe.

Also to be avoided as an injection site is the jugular furrow along the bottom of the neck. This area contains the jugular vein and carotid artery. If medications or vaccines are injected too low along the neck, they can enter directly into the bloodstream and have the unintended effect of possible severe drug reactions.

Another consideration is to keep a hand-width of space between medication injection sites when having to administer multiple ones on an animal. This helps ensure that the tissue can adequately recover from the injections, and it will also prevent the medications from combining under the skin. If medications mix within the animal because they are given in the same spot, they can interact and cause drug reactions, or they can potentially inactivate each other, rendering them useless.

As for the actual equipment, the needle size should be based on the size of the animal. You will see some slight variations in recommended sizes, but generally, for calves less than 500 pounds, a 20- to 18-gauge needle that is 1/2 to 5/8 inch is used for SQ injections. For cattle greater than 500 pounds, an 18- to 16-gauge needle that is 1/2 to 3/4 inch is used. The needle should be slightly longer for IM injections, but the consideration is the same as SQ for weight. Always choose the smallest gauge needle that can still effectively deliver the type of medication needed. Disposable needles with an aluminum hub are preferred.

Now, about those needles. A box of 100 averages out to about 25 cents per unit. Walk into most cattle working pens and what will you find? Needles recapped and lying around, you know, just in case. In today’s economy, it does pay to be frugal, but ranchers have been hoarding and reusing needles for as long as they’ve been in use. Folks, they are one of the least expensive pieces of equipment that we use. You and your animals are better served if the needle being used is replaced when needed.

So, exactly when is it necessary? If a needle is burred, bent or dull, it will increase the likelihood of tissue damage and abscessing. It is even recommended that the needle be replaced every 10 to 15 injections and every time it is necessary to enter a multidose vial. If a needle is bent, you should never attempt to straighten it. You should replace it with a new one.

I’m pretty sure this train of thought will cause a collective gasp. Seriously, they’re not expensive, and they’re not meant to be used for the duration of your lifetime. Replace those suckers!

As for the syringe, proper cleaning is essential for maintaining hygiene and preventing cross-contamination. Whenever possible, you should designate specific syringes for each product and use only with that product.

And this next point is very important. Syringes should NOT be cleaned with soaps or antibacterial agents, as they may affect the efficacy of vaccines because of residue left behind after cleaning. Instead, you should perform a quick pre-rinse with only warm water immediately after use. If disassembly is possible, separate the barrel, plunger and needle, then wash using hot water and a brush. Once cleaned, the syringe may be hung upside down to air dry or placed on a clean towel to dry. Do not reassemble and/or store until fully dry.

When you are utilizing best management practices, your herd stays healthier and more profitable for you. Even if you are throwing away more needles!

By Landon Moore

If you keep or are interested in keeping poultry, you will have the desire to raise young birds at some point. If you order chicks, or decide to incubate and hatch eggs, it will be necessary to learn how to brood the resulting hatchlings. While this will vary in specifics between species, the basic rules remain the same. In this article, the word “chicks” will be used, but the general information following also applies to goslings, ducklings, keets, poults, etc.

Brooding poultry is caring for the chicks during the period when they are growing their first feathers. Chicks hatch with a thin coat of down that leaves them susceptible to chilling. The mother keeps them warm by continuing to sit on the young for the first weeks after hatching. If you plan to hatch your own flock’s eggs you may wonder why you should bother to do it artificially, especially if you have broody birds. The answer is that modern incubators are much more likely to result in live chicks, can incubate far more eggs and keep the extremely vulnerable hatchlings safe as they emerge, especially from ants. Of course if you are purchasing chicks, brooding is your only option.

Before your eggs hatch or the chicks arrive, you will want to have the brooder set up, and ready to go. The first issue to decide is location. You will want a covered and secured place to set up the brooder. Be sure it has plenty of air flow; as anyone who has spent any time with birds can attest, fowl of any age produce an unpleasant smell without adequate ventilation. A barn or other outbuilding could work, but be sure it is well secured. A cat, raccoon or other predator could easily kill your chicks if they get the opportunity. A garage is a great option, offering protection and close access to water and electricity. If it lacks windows you will need to open the garage door a few times per day for ventilation. Inside the house is another option (such as in a disused bathroom) especially for very small poultry. This may seem ideal, offering complete protection, easy temperature regulation, water and electrify, but there are drawbacks. Aside from smell, chicks are unbelievably messy and will require extensive and daily cleaning if the room is to remain in even slightly good condition.

The next choice is what the brooder box will be. You can purchase large metal brooders built for hundreds of chicks or expensive tiered systems on rollers. However the best option is usually a plain, heavy-duty plastic storage box. Cheap, easy to move, simple to clean and sanitize, these are the most versatile and efficient option.

The chicks will require (in addition to shelter) heat, bedding, feed and water. The heat will come in the form of a small heat lamp or even a very strong and hot light bulb suspended above one end of the brooder box. Be sure it is securely prevented from falling into bedding or you could end up with a fire. You can make a metal screen to place over the box which protects them from predators in addition to falling lamps. Place a thermometer at the surface of the bedding before adding the chicks and adjust the heat lamp until the thermometer measures 95 degrees. You will reduce this by 5 degrees each week until their feathers have grown out. Even if the weather reaches or exceeds this temperature a lamp will be needed at night.

You may be intimidated by charts showing the exact temperature requirements of various poultry species and wonder how you can possibly keep the heat exactly right during daily temperature shifts. You do not need to be overly worried about this. Why? Because the chicks will tell you if they are comfortable through their behavior. After placing them in the brooder simply watch them for a few minutes. Do they crowd underneath the heat, piling on each other to conserve heat? Lower the bulb a bit. Are they straining against the opposite wall and cheeping in stress? Move it further away. Are they fairly evenly spread out, some exploring their new environment and some sleeping under the heat? Perfect. This is why the heat should be placed over one end of the brooder. If it is over the entire box you will have no way of knowing if your chicks are over-warmed.

The next issue is bedding. When the chicks are first placed in the brooder the bedding should be a layer of paper towels or (non-slick) newspaper. This even surface provides good traction for the birds preventing splayed legs and also prevents them from getting stuck somewhere and dying or else ingesting bedding before they learn what feed is and dying. It is always good to keep in mind that chicks of all kinds are morbid little things that will jump at the first opportunity for death in their initial couple weeks of life. It is up to you to deny them the opportunity until their self-preservation instinct kicks in. Chicks mature shockingly fast and in just a couple of days the bedding may be exchanged for pine shavings. You may still want a layer of paper at the bottom to make cleaning easier. You do not want to disturb the chicks without necessity, so you can add a fresh layer of shavings a couple of times as needed before you completely clean the box.

Commercial chick feed is available that is meant to be suitable for all species. For game birds, guineas and turkeys it’s often better to just use an adult gamebird crumble feed as their protein requirements are extremely high. For waterfowl, be sure the feed has enough niacin if it isn’t specifically formulated for them. If it does not have enough, you can sprinkle some brewer’s yeast over the top. Medicated feed is usually formulated for chicks specifically and may not be safe for other species (especially for waterfowl), so be sure to check before feeding. Chicks aren’t especially bright and may not be able to figure out how to operate the feeder at first. You can help them by placing a small pile of their feed on a paper plate (or paper towel for quail) where they can see it more easily.

For waterers, their basically two main types; open waterers and bottles. The bottles can be complicated with multiple pieces and nipples to drink from or simply a two piece plastic quart jar and base that screw together. The open waterers will usually be a miniature trough with a hinged or sliding lid that allows the chicks to stick their heads in without falling into the waterer and drowning. Generally the bottle type waterers will stay cleaner and hold more, but for waterfowl open waterers are preferred so they may submerge their bills for cleaning. Quail should be given bottles with special quail bases which are very small to prevent drowning. It can be extremely beneficial to dissolve a couple tablespoons of sugar (or commercially-made chick electrolytes) into the water for the first few days, especially if the chicks came by mail. Provide chicks with warm water the first few days (use your inner wrist to determine a suitable temperature, as you would milk for a bottle) to prevent chilling them. Be sure to carefully dunk each chick’s beak into the water when they are placed in the brooder so they learn what it is.

Chicks are most fragile for the first three days and should be handled as little as possible. When shipped, they will arrive stressed and possible chilled and care during this period is the most crucial. For the first three days after hatching, chicks are still absorbing their egg yolk and will not require outside nutrition and therefore may eat sparingly. It is best practice to sanitize the feeders and waterers regularly, but be aware that all birds will leave manure in their water. Don’t let the water remain filthy, but don’t expect it to remain sterile, either. Likewise, a stinking bog will not yield thriving poultry, but it is unnecessary to fanatically clean the brooder constantly. When the chicks are fully feathered will vary by species (three weeks for quail, six weeks for chickens), but once this happens it will be time for your young feathered friends to graduate to their new pens.

By Tony Dean

Farmers and ranchers are in a very close partnership with Mother Nature. If we really pay attention, she presents us some interesting scenarios.

For example, though they are totally different types of plants, water lilies and prickly pear have a lot in common. They both have strikingly beautiful flowers, both plants are edible, both of them are invaders into their respective habitats, and too much of either one can be an obstacle that we have to deal with.

Many north Texas ranches rely on excavated ponds for livestock water. Any time a pond contains a significant amount of shallow water so that sunlight reaches the bottom, some type of pond weed will develop.  The plant family that includes water lilies and lotuses is a common invader in our livestock water.

Water lilies and lotuses are in the same plant family but they are two separate genera. There are easy ways to tell them apart:

• A primary difference is that water lily leaves commonly float on the surface, but lotus leaves can grow above the water line.
• Water lily leaves and flowers are thick and waxy, while lotus leaves and flowers are thin and papery.
• Water lily leaves have a distinct notch in the leaf, while lotus leaves are more rounded.
• Water lily flower petals are pointed, and lotus petals are more rounded.

The photos attached to this writing are from Clay County, and this plant is common across north Texas. American lotus is adapted to a wide area, from Honduras north through Mexico and across the eastern US and into Canada.

American lotus is a perennial, and it is cold tolerant and heat tolerant. It can grow in any pond or slow moving stream that contains shallow water areas.  It prefers water with a depth of about 12 inches. Germination can occur from the large lotus seeds. Tubers, or roots, are established in the mud, and long slender stems extend upward. Leaves and flowers are both emergent in that they grow above the water line.

Lotus flowers are fragrant, and yellowish white with rich gold centers.  They open in the morning and close by late afternoon, then open again the next day.

Lotus is an edible plant and has a history as a food source. The large tuberous roots, the size of a human arm, were baked like sweet potatoes. The leaves were eaten like spinach, and the large seeds were ground into flour. Stems taste somewhat like beets and were usually peeled before being eaten.

There is a large world-wide industry of cultivating lilies and lotuses in water gardens. According to        Dr. Jerry Parsons, Professor and Extension Horticulturist with Texas A&M AgriLife Extension, cultivation of these plants dates back as early as ancient Egypt. Today, anyone with determination and a little money can have a water garden.

In 2011, the 82^nd Texas Legislature designated the water lily “Texas Dawn” as the official Texas State Water Lily. Texas Dawn is a hybrid developed by Texas resident Kenneth Landon, a world-renowned expert in the field of water lilies and the director of the International Water Lily collection in San Angelo.

Ducks and other wildlife utilize the large acorn like seeds of American lotus, and submerged portions of all aquatic plants provide some form of wetland habitat. Many of us have tried to pull a bass out of a group of water lilies or lotuses, and I’m sure others have had better luck than I did. Although there can certainly be benefits to lilies, lotuses, and other aquatic plants, they can also infest ponds to the extent that the pond is not functioning correctly.

So, while the rest of the world works hard to grow these plants, ranchers sometimes need to control populations in their stock ponds. Once it gets a foot hold, American lotus can spread aggressively in wetland areas.

The primary issue that encourages American lotus, and most other water weeds, is shallow water.  Look closely at a good livestock pond and you will find that the deeper water is basically free of infestation.  Any pond will have a certain amount of shallow water that encourages water weed growth, depending upon the terrain at the pond site and how the pond was constructed. Some ranchers who enjoy and utilize wetland habitat may prefer to have ponds with significant shallow water area.

Almost all livestock ponds have a certain life expectancy.  Siltation, or movement of soil into the pond bottom through rainfall runoff, is a natural occurrence.  How fast siltation occurs into each pond, and how deep the pond was to start with, determines the length of time that the pond will contain adequate depth for dependable water for livestock.

Ponds that develop infestations of water weeds over a large percent of the surface may not have adequate depth to remain a viable water source for livestock during drought periods, especially in  western north Texas where evaporation rates are higher.

Mud, or silt, from the pond bottom, can be removed to deepen the water, but this is a very expensive process.  It is often more economical to construct a new pond rather than try to remove the silt from an old one.  Most of us do not have the funds to continually construct deep water livestock ponds, so we must try to keep existing structures functioning and providing good drinking water for livestock, for as long as we can. Control of pond weeds like American lotus may be necessary, and it can be accomplished.

There is currently no feasible biological control. American lotus can be cut and removed, but this process us usually temporary because lotus can reestablish from seeds and roots.

American lotus can be safely controlled by chemicals. This must be done carefully.  If a pond containing a large amount of any pond weeds is treated to remove all of the vegetation, a fish die-off could occur.  When the dying weeds decompose, they use up the oxygen in the water and fish can suffocate. If possible, treat only a portion of the area, wait about two weeks, and treat another portion.